Features
How do they do it? Second language acquisition in early childhood
by Kimberlee Spencer and Karen Petty
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What is the process of English language acquisition?
When acquiring a second language, individuals go through four stages (Tabors 1997). They are 1) native language use, 2) a nonverbal phase, 3) a pre-productive phase, and 4) a productive phase. Researchers believe that people of all ages who are acquiring a second language pass through theses four stages. This information is useful not only for teachers working with children acquiring a second language but their families as well.
In the first phase, children are unaware that others may not be able to understand them. They will enter the classroom expecting everyone to understand their language and will try to communicate through their native language. It will take time for these children to understand that the language they use at home does not work in some environments.
At the beginning of the year Josselyn often spoke to her English-speaking teachers and classmates in Spanish. She tried to explain what she wanted to do and was eager to report anyone who had broken a class rule. Her teacher tried to decipher what she was saying based on Josselyn’s gestures but was usually unsuccessful. Once Josselyn realized her native language did not help her in the classroom, she entered a nonverbal phase.
During this second phase, children may stop speaking altogether. They may no longer use their native language nor try to use English. This phase varies in length for each child. For some children it may last for a few weeks, and for others it may be months. During this phase, children are gathering information about the new language they are hearing. These children are listening and watching in order to make connections with the new language.
Younger children spend more time in the nonverbal phase than older children (Tabors 1997). According to Josselyn’s teachers, she spent approximately three months in this phase. Josselyn not only stopped speaking Spanish to her English-speaking classmates but also stopped speaking to her Spanish-speaking classmates. Josselyn was not speaking, but she was still developing her English and Spanish language skills.
In addition to gathering information about the new language, children may also begin imitating the sounds they hear in the new language. These children may carefully watch people who are speaking English and try to copy their movements and sounds (Tabors 1997). Children may not use these efforts to communicate, but it shows that they are moving toward the pre-productive phase.
Once children are ready to practice their new language, they enter the pre-productive phase. During this third phase, children are comfortable enough to begin to use English. A child may begin by repeating the word “car” when prompted by the teacher and progress to telling a classmate “Good-bye” or “Thank you.” Like babies acquiring a native language, these children will repeat and experiment with words they hear often (Tabors 1997). The benefits of the time spent in the nonverbal phase will begin to show. With opportunities to practice, children will move into the final phase.
In the productive phase (Tabors 1997), children build their own sentences in English. They will start with one-word responses such as “Juice” and proceed to full sentences like “Can I have juice?” With appropriate English models and opportunities to practice their English vocabulary, proficiency will increase. Children will begin to use their developing vocabulary and create sentences with multiple words as well as improving their pronunciation. Again, the use of the second language will be affected by the child’s security in the classroom and opportunities to hear and use their new language in a supportive environment.
The following table explains the four stages of second language acquisition. It shows each stage and the language that may be observed in it. The table offers a handy reference for teachers to discover where children are and where they are headed in their language development.

Native language use phase
Child uses native language to speak to everyone.

Nonverbal phase
Child does not speak, may attempt to make “English sounds.”

Pre-productive phase
Child repeats words, uses common words like, hello, good-bye.

Productive phase
Child builds on one word sentences.

How can I help the children in my class?
As children move through the four phases of second language acquisition, they need support from nurturing teachers in supportive environments. Asher (1982) introduced the concept of Total Physical Response as a tool for helping children acquire language. One important aspect of this concept is providing physical movement while acquiring language. Physical movement includes using gestures, objects, and pictures. Early childhood professionals can provide opportunities to act out language and manipulate real objects to reinforce language learning.
The following table provides examples of specific supports early childhood professionals can provide to children acquiring a second language. Basically teachers can make children comfortable in the classroom and in social situations.

Interactions
Always respond to any attempt to use any language.
Use gestures.
Repeat and emphasize words.
Talk about what is happening at that moment.
Extend language by adding to what the child says.
Provide language at each child’s level of ability and scaffold.
Speak slowly.
Don’t force anyone to speak.
Model correct English.
Encourage conversations at meal times.

Activities
Include every student in the classroom community.
Provide many opportunities for children to talk throughout the day.
Provide small group activities.
Plan activities that strengthen listening skills.
Provide small group book reading.
Read books with predictable text.
Read books over and over again.

Materials
Provide real objects whenever possible.
Arrange space for children to play alone.

Daily schedule
Provide time to become familiar with the classroom, teachers, and other students.
Maintain consistent routines.
Daily schedule that allows time for free choice.
Keep whole group time short.

Information adapted from Tabors 1997

What about parents?
Tabors (1997) provides a powerful example of how to talk with parents about native and second languages. A teacher might say to parents: “Your role is to teach your children about the world. My role is to teach them the English to talk about what they understand about the world.”
Parents are a child’s first teacher. Early childhood programs can work with parents to support one another and extend classroom experiences (Tabors 1997). Programs can encourage parents to be involved in their child’s classroom and provide many opportunities for parent involvement throughout the year. When parents are involved, the teacher can model activities and interactions, support the family, and build a sense of community in the classroom.
Home visits are another important way to involve parents and a great way for teachers to learn about each family and their culture. Home visits are highly effective in reaching hard-to-reach families and in focusing on the whole family rather than just the child (Bogenschneider 2002, Freeman and Freeman 1994).

What about other models of instruction?
In addition to the strategies presented, there are variations in native language and bilingual instruction. One such model is 50/50 instruction in which some content is taught in English and some content is taught in Spanish.
Another is a transitional model in which, for example, a kindergarten teacher may teach 90 percent of the day in Spanish and 10 percent of the day in English. The goal is to move these children to all English over the course of five or six years.
For more information on these strategies and others, see the National Association of Bilingual Educators Web site, www.nabe.org.

Be prepared to provide a positive experience
Many children whose native language is not English are enrolled in English-speaking early childhood programs. Teachers and administrators must be prepared to provide positive experiences for all children. Knowledge of the benefits of a bilingual classroom, the stages of second language acquisition, methods to use in the classroom, and ways to support families form the foundation of quality programs for young children developing a second language.
At the same time, parents and professionals need to remember that children have individual differences that will affect their language development. A program that may work in one community may not be as effective in another. Children come to the classroom with different experiences and interact differently with other children and adults. Providing an environment that works for all children is not always easy but it is important.

References
Asher, J.J. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Pergamon Press.
Bogenschneider, K. 2002. Family Policy Matters: How Policymaking Affects Families and What Professionals Can Do. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cummins, J. 1979. Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19, 121-129.
Cummins, J. 2000. Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon, United Kingdom: Multilingual Matters.
Freeman, D.E. and Y.S. Freeman. 1994. Between Worlds: Access to Second Language Acquisition. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. 1988. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Krashen, S. 2004. Skyrocketing scores: An urban legend. Educational Leadership.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. 2005. Many Languages, Many Cultures: Respecting and Responding to Diversity. Retrieved Feb. 17, 2007, from www.naeyc.org/about/positions/pdf/diversity.pdf.
National Child Care Information Center. 2004. Hispanics and Child Care: The Changing Landscape. Retrieved Feb. 17, 2007 from http://nccic. acf.hhs.gov/pubs/hispanic-cc/hispanic-cc.pdf.
Tabors, P.O. 1997. One Child, Two Languages: A Guide for Preschool Educators of Children Learning English as a Second Language. Baltimore, Md.: Paul H. Brookes.
United States Census Bureau. 2005. American Community Survey: Retrieved Feb. 17, 2007 from http://factfinder.census.gov

About the authors
Kimberlee Spencer is a doctoral degree student in child development at Texas Woman’s University in Denton, Texas. She has worked in the early childhood field as a teacher, center director, licensing specialist, and mentor. She provides training across the state and teaches courses at Eastfield Community College in Dallas.
Karen Petty is an associate professor in early child development and education in the Department of Family Sciences at Texas Woman’s University. She teaches courses in child development and early childhood education.